外文翻譯及原文---族群與集群競爭力

1、<p><b>　　英文文獻資料（一）</b></p><p>　　Clusters and the New Economics of Competition</p><p>　　Michael E. Porter</p><p>　?。℉arvard university）</p><p>　　Why Clu

2、sters Are Critical to Competition</p><p>　　Modern competition depends on productivity, not on access to inputs or the scale of individual enterprises.Productivity rests on how companies compete,not on the pa

3、rticular fields they compete in.Companies can be highly productive in any industry– shoes, agriculture, or semiconductors – if they employ sophisticated methods, use advanced technology,and offer unique products and serv

4、ices. All industries can employ advanced technology; all industries can be knowledge intensive. </p><p>　　The sophistication with which companies compete in a particular location, however, is strongly influe

5、nced by the quality of the local business environment.1 Companies cannot employ advanced logistical techniques, for example, without a high quality transportation infrastructure. Nor can companies effectively compete on

6、sophisticated service without well-educated employees. Businesses cannot operate efficiently under onerous regulatory red tape or under a court system that fails to resolve disput</p><p>　　Clusters affect co

7、mpetition in three broad ways:first, by increasing the productivity of companies based in the area; second, by driving the direction and pace of innovation, which underpins future productivity growth; and third, by stimu

8、lating the formation of new businesses, which expands and strengthens the cluster itself. A cluster allows each member to benefit as if it had greater scale or as if it had joined with others formally – without requiring

9、 it to sacrifice its flexibility.</p><p>　　Clusters and Productivity. Being part of a cluster allows companies to operate more productively in sourcing inputs; accessing information, technology,and needed in

10、stitutions; coordinating with related companies; and measuring and motivating improvement.</p><p>　　Better Access to Employees and Suppliers. Companies in vibrant clusters can tap into an existing pool of sp

11、ecialized and experienced employees, thereby lowering their search and transaction costs in recruiting. Because a cluster signals opportunity and reduces the risk of relocation for employees, it can also be easier to att

12、ract talented people from other locations, a decisive advantage in some industries.</p><p>　　A well-developed cluster also provides an efficient means of obtaining other important inputs.Such a cluster offer

13、s a deep and specialized supplier base. Sourcing locally instead of from distant suppliers lowers transaction costs. It minimizes the need for inventory, eliminates importing costs and delays, and – because local reputat

14、ion is important – lowers the risk that suppliers will overprice or renege on commitments. Proximity improves communications and makes it easier for suppliers to prov</p><p>　　Formal alliances with distant s

15、uppliers can mitigate some of the disadvantages of distant outsourcing. But all formal alliances involve their own complex bargaining and governance problems and can inhibit a company’s flexibility. The close, informal r

16、elationships possible among companies in a cluster are often a superior Arrangement. </p><p>　　In many cases, clusters are also a better alternative to vertical integration.Compared with in-house units, outs

17、ide specialists are often more cost effective and responsive, not only in component production but also in services such as training. Although extensive vertical integration may have once been the norm, a fast-changing e

18、nvironment can render vertical integration inefficient, ineffective, and inflexible.</p><p>　　Even when some inputs are best sourced from a distance, clusters offer advantages. Suppliers trying to penetrate

19、a large, concentrated market will price more aggressively, knowing that as they do so they can realize efficiencies in marketing and in service. </p><p>　　Working against a cluster’s advantages in assembling

20、 resources is the possibility that competition will render them more expensive and scarce. But companies do have the alternative of outsourcing many inputs from other locations, which tends to limit potential cost penalt

21、ies. More important, clusters increase not only the demand for specialized inputs but also their supply.</p><p>　　Access to Specialized Information. Extensive market, technical, and competitive information a

22、ccumulates within a cluster, and members have preferred access to it. In addition, personal relationships and community ties foster trust and facilitate the flow of information. These conditions make information more tra

23、nsferable.</p><p>　　Complementarities. A host of linkages among cluster members results in a whole greater than the sum of its parts. In a typical tourism cluster, for example, the quality of a visitor’s exp

24、erience depends not only on the appeal of the primary attraction but also on the quality and efficiency of complementary businesses such as hotels, restaurants, shopping outlets, and transportation facilities. Because me

25、mbers of the cluster are mutually dependent, good performance by one can boost the success of</p><p>　　Complementarities come in many forms. The most obvious is when products complement one another in meetin

26、g customers’ needs, as the tourism example illustrates. Another form is the coordination of activities across companies to optimize their collective productivity. In wood products, for instance, the efficiency of sawmill

27、s depends on a reliable supply of high-quality timber and the ability to put all the timber to use – in furniture (highest quality), pallets and boxes (lower quality), or wood </p><p>　　Logging operations, f

28、or example, had to modify cutting and sorting procedures, while sawmills had to develop the capacity to process wood in more sophisticated ways. Coordination to develop standard wood classifications and measures was an i

29、mportant enabling step. Geographically dispersed companies are less likely to recognize and capture such linkages.</p><p>　　Other complementarities arise in marketing. A cluster frequently enhances the reput

30、ation of a location in a particular field, making it more likely that buyers will turn to a vendor based there. Italy’s strong reputation for fashion and design, for example, benefits companies involved in leather goods,

31、 footwear, apparel, and accessories. Beyond reputation, cluster members often profit from a variety of joint marketing mechanisms, such as company referrals, trade fairs, trade magazines, and marke</p><p>　　

32、Finally, complementarities can make buying from a cluster more attractive for customers. Visiting buyers can see many vendors in a single trip. They also may perceive their buying risk to be lower because one location pr

33、ovides alternative suppliers. That allows them to multisource or to switch vendors if the need arises. Hong Kong thrives as a source of fashion apparel in part for this reason.</p><p>　　Access to Institution

34、s and Public Goods. Investments made by government or other public institutions– such as public spending for specialized infrastructure or educational programs – can enhance a company’s productivity. The ability to recru

35、it employees trained at local programs, for example, lowers the cost of internal training. Other quasi-public goods, such as the cluster’s information and technology pools and its reputation, arise as natural by-products

36、 of competition.</p><p>　　It is not just governments that create public goods that enhance productivity in the private sector. Investments by companies – in training programs, infrastructure, quality centers

37、, testing laboratories, and so on – also contribute to increased productivity. Such private investments are often made collectively because cluster participants recognize the potential for collective benefits.</p>

38、<p>　　Better Motivation and Measurement. Local rivalry is highly motivating. Peer pressure amplifies competitive pressure within a cluster,even among noncompeting or indirectly competing companies. Pride and the de

39、sire to look good in the local community spur executives to attempt to outdo one another.</p><p>　　Clusters also often make it easier to measure and compare performances because local rivals share general ci

40、rcumstances – for example, labor costs and local market access – and they perform similar activities. Companies within clusters typically have intimate knowledge of their suppliers’ costs. Managers are able to compare co

41、sts and employees’ performance with other local companies. Additionally, financial institutions can accumulate knowledge about the cluster that can be used to monitor perfo</p><p>　　Clusters and Innovation.

42、In addition to enhancing productivity, clusters play a vital role in a company’s ongoing ability to innovate. Some of the same characteristics that enhance current productivity have an even more dramatic effect on innova

43、tion and productivity growth.</p><p>　　Because sophisticated buyers are often part of a cluster, companies inside clusters usually have a better window on the market than isolated competitors do. Computer co

44、mpanies based in Silicon Valley and Austin, Texas, for example, plug into customer needs and trends with a speed difficult to match by companies located elsewhere. The ongoing relationships with other entities within the

45、 cluster also help companies to learn early about evolving technology, component and machinery availability, ser</p><p>　　Clusters do more than make opportunities for innovation more visible. They also provi

46、de the capacity and the flexibility to act rapidly. A company within a cluster often can source what it needs to implement innovations more quickly. Local suppliers and partners can and do get closely involved in the inn

47、ovation process, thus ensuring a better match with customers’ requirements. </p><p>　　Companies within a cluster can experiment at lower cost and can delay large commitments until they are more assured th

48、at a given innovation will pan out. In contrast, a company relying on distant suppliers faces greater challenges in every activity it coordinates with other organizations – in contracting, for example, or securing delive

49、ry or obtaining associated technical and service support. Innovation can be even harder in vertically integrated companies, especially in those that face difficul</p><p>　　Reinforcing the other advantages fo

50、r innovation is the sheer pressure – competitive pressure, peer pressure, constant comparison – that occurs in a cluster. Executives vie with one another to set their companies apart. For all these reasons, clusters can

51、remain centers of innovation for decades.</p><p>　　Clusters and New Business Formation. </p><p>　　It is not surprising, then, that many new companies grow up within an existing cluster rather th

52、an at isolated locations. New suppliers, for example, proliferate within a cluster because a concentrated customer base lowers their risks and makes it easier for them to spot market opportunities. Moreover, because deve

53、loped clusters comprise related industries that normally draw on common or very similar inputs, suppliers enjoy expanded opportunities.</p><p>　　Clusters are conducive to new business formation for a variety

54、 of reasons. Individuals working within a cluster can more easily perceive gaps in products or services around which they can build businesses. Beyond that, barriers to entry are lower than elsewhere. Needed assets, skil

55、ls, inputs, and staff are often readily available at the cluster location, waiting to be assembled into a new enterprise.</p><p>　　Local financial institutions and investors, already familiar with the cluste

56、r, may require a lower risk premium on capital. In addition, the cluster often presents a significant local market, and an entrepreneur may benefit from established relationships. All of these factors reduce the perceive

57、d risks of entry – and of exit, should the enterprise fail. </p><p>　　The formation of new businesses within a cluster is part of a positive feedback loop. An expanded cluster amplifies all the benefits I ha

58、ve described – it increases the collective pool of competitive resources, which benefits all the cluster’s members. The net result is that companies in the cluster advance relative to rivals at other locations.</p>

59、<p>　　英文文獻中文翻譯（二）</p><p>　　來源：哈佛商業評論Vol.76第6期 1998年</p><p>　　作者：邁克·E. 波特</p><p><b>　　出版時間：1998</b></p><p><b>　　簇群與新競爭經濟學</b></p&g

60、t;<p>　　(美）邁克·E. 波特</p><p>　　為什么簇群對競爭至關重要?</p><p>　　現代競爭取決于生產力, 而非取決于投入或單個企業的規模。生產力取決于公司如何競爭, 而非它們在何領域競爭。如果公司運用熟練的方法和先進的技術, 提供獨特的產品和服務,那任何產業，鞋業、農業或半導體產業都能產生較高的生產力。所有產業都能夠運用先進的技術;所有產業

61、都能成為知識密集型產業。</p><p>　　然而, 公司在某一特定的地理位置進行競爭的復雜程度受當地商業環境質量的影響極</p><p>　　大。例如,如果缺乏高質量的交通運輸基礎設施,公司就無法使用先進的后勤技術。同樣,如果沒有受過良好教育的雇員, 公司也無法在成熟的服務業中進行有效的競爭。企業無法在繁雜的管制性紅頭文件或一個不能迅速、公平地解決爭端的法院體系下進行有效的競爭。商業環境

62、的某些方面, 例如法律制度或公司稅率, 也會影響所有產業。在發達的國家中, 商業環境中起決定性作用的方面通常是簇群所特有的,這為競爭打下了最重要的微觀經濟基礎。</p><p>　　簇群通過三種方式影響競爭:首先,通過增強以該領域為立足點的公司的生產力來施加影響; 其次,通過推動創新的方向和步伐,為未來生產力的增長奠定堅實的基礎; 再次,通過鼓勵新企業的形成,擴大并增強簇群本身來影響競爭。每個簇群總能使其每個成員

63、受益,仿佛它擁有更大的規?；蛞雅c其他簇群正式地聯合在一起——而并不要求它犧牲自身的靈活性。 </p><p>　　簇群與生產力 成為簇群的一部分將使得公司在尋求投入、獲得信息技術及所要的制度、協調相關公司和促進改善等方面運作起來更加有效。</p><p>　　獲取雇員和供應商的更好途徑。在有活力的簇群內公司可以利用現有的各種專業化、有經驗的雇員, 從而降低他們在招聘過程中的搜索成本和交易

64、成本。因為每一個大簇群意味著有更多的機會,減少重新安置雇員的風險。它還易于從其他地區吸引人才,從某些產業中攫取起決定性作用的優勢。</p><p>　　一個發展狀況良好的簇群為獲取其它重要的投入要素提供了一條有效的途徑。它提供了</p><p>　　一個深層次、專業化的供應商基地。就地取材而不是從遙遠的供應商那里獲取資源,可以降低交易成本。這有助于把存貨需求降低到最小程度, 同時也有助于減

65、少進口成本以及避免生產延誤。而且本地聲譽可以起到重要作用,它有助于降低供應商抬高價格或違約的風險。地理位置的相近性有利于改善通訊聯絡、有利于供應商提供輔助性服務, 諸如安裝、排除故障之類的服務。然而, 如果其他條件相同, 就地取材比從遠處取材更為方便快捷, 尤其是對于那些涉及內在信息、技術和服務滿意度等先進性、專業化的投入要素來說更是如此。</p><p>　　與外地供應商正式結盟,可以緩解從外地獲取資源的許多劣

66、勢。但是,所有正式的聯盟都</p><p>　　將涉及他們各自復雜的議價問題和管理問題,從而限制了公司的靈活性和機動性。所以,簇群</p><p>　　內部各公司之間親密而又非正式的關系通常是較優的選擇。</p><p>　　在許多案例中,簇群是取代垂直一體化的更好選擇。與內設單位相比,外部的專家在部件</p><p>　　生產和諸如培訓等服

67、務方面, 通常更具有成本效益和責任心。雖然廣泛的垂直一體化曾經是</p><p>　　我們的追求目標,但是,瞬息萬變的外部環境可能使垂直一體化缺乏效率、效能和靈活性。</p><p>　　即使某些投入要素最好從遠地獲取, 簇群也仍然可以提供某些優勢。那些致力于滲入一</p><p>　　個廣闊而又集中的市場的供應商們, 將會使其定價更具競爭性, 因為他們知道, 他們

68、的這一做法能夠實現營銷和服務的高效率。</p><p>　　如果資源配置違背簇群優勢,競爭就可能導致配置代價更高和資源的短缺。但是,公司也可以從其他地區外購能減少成本損失的各種生產要素。更重要的是, 簇群不僅增加了對專門化投入要素的需求,而且還他們的供給。</p><p>　　獲取專業化信息的途徑。簇群內廣泛積累了市場、技術和競爭的信息,簇群成員優先獲取了這些信息。另外,個人關系和社會聯結

69、能培育信任,促進信息的傳遞。所有上述條件都有利于信息的傳播。</p><p>　　互補性。一個簇群的成員之間廣泛聯結而產生的總體力量大于其各部分之和。以一個典</p><p>　　型的旅游簇群為例。觀光旅游者的旅游質量不僅取決于景觀引人入勝的程度, 還有賴于互補</p><p>　　性商業活動, 如旅館、餐館、商店和交通設施的質量和效率。因為簇群內各個成員是相互依賴

70、的,某個成員的優質服務將促進其他成員的成功。</p><p>　　互補性表現形式眾多。正如上述旅游簇群說明的那樣, 最為明顯的一種形式是許多產品在滿足顧客的需求方面相互補充。另外一種表現形式是, 公司之間的相互協調可以使他們的集體生產能力得到進一步完善。以木制產品為例, 鋸木廠的效率有賴于高質量木料的供應以及所有木材得到充分利用的能力。在20 世紀90 年代初期,葡萄牙鋸木廠因木材質量差而遭受巨大損失。這是由于當

71、地土地所有者沒有投資于木材管理所致。從而,大多數木材被加工成貨盤和木箱, 這種低價值的使用限制了供給的價格。大量改進生產力是有可能的, 但前提條件是, 簇群內的其他一些成員應同時改變經營方式。例如, 伐木廠必須改變砍伐和分類程序, 并以更復雜的方式發展其加工木材的能力。共同協作以發展標準化的木材分類法和測量法是一個非常重要而又切實可行的環節。然而,在地理位置上處于分散的公司,極少認識到這種聯結的重要性,也極少能利用這種聯結的好處。<

72、;/p><p>　　其他互補性形式可能會出現于市場營銷中。每個簇群總是在持續不斷地提高其在某個地區特定領域的聲譽。這一行為使得買者轉向賣者聚居地的可能性更大。例如,意大利在服裝與設計方面享有良好的聲譽, 這些聲譽使那些涉及皮毛商品、鞋類、衣服飾品等方面的生產公司受益匪淺。除聲譽外, 簇群成員還經常能從大量的營銷機制中獲益, 例如, 公司分派貿易展覽會、貿易雜志、營銷代表團等。</p><p>

73、　　最后,互補性使客戶傾向于購買簇群的東西。在單一的旅行中,觀光旅游者可以看到很多賣主(即提供旅游服務的公司) , 他們同樣會察覺到購買風險降低了。這是因為一個地區內有眾多的供應商可供他們選擇, 所以, 當需求上升時, 他們就有可能從多種渠道尋求要素投入或轉而尋求其他賣主。香港作為服飾業的基地而繁榮昌盛起來,就部分地歸功于這一原因。</p><p>　　獲取機構和公共物品的途徑。政府和其他公共機構的投資，例如專業

74、化基礎設施或教育項目方面的公共費用支出能夠提高公司的勞動生產率。例如,公司招募那些在接受本地區項目培訓的雇員,可以降低公司內部培訓的成本。其他準公共物品,例如簇群信息技術庫和聲譽將作為競爭的天然副產品而出現。</p><p>　　不僅僅是政府創造提高民間部門生產力的公共物品。公司如在培訓項目、基礎設施、質量中心、實驗室等方面投資, 也將對生產率的提高做出貢獻。不過, 諸如此類的民間投資通常是由集體進行的。因為簇群

75、成員認識到了這種集體合作利益的潛在可能性。</p><p>　　更好的動力和衡量。當地的競爭更具動力。在簇群內部, 甚至在非競爭或非直接競爭的</p><p>　　公司之間,共同的壓力將增強競爭性的壓力,自豪感以及想在本社區良好發展的目標使公司決策者們試圖一個一個擊敗競爭對手。</p><p>　　簇群通?？梢允购饬亢捅容^公司業績更為便捷。因為當地競爭對手是在相同的

76、環境——例如勞動力成本和當地市場渠道一樣———下經營的,同時他們還從事相似的經營活動。簇群內部各公司都一般非常熟悉其供貨商的生產成本。管理者們在成本和雇員的表現方面與其他地區的公司進行比較。另外,金融機構可以積累簇群的相關知識,以監督其經營業績。</p><p>　　簇群與創新 除提高勞動生產率之外, 簇群在持續提高公司創新能力方面同樣也發揮著關鍵性作用。有些增加現時生產力的相同特征對創新和生產力增長起著更為顯

77、著的影響。</p><p>　　因為老練理性的商品購買者通常也是簇群的一部分,所以簇群內的公司與獨立的公司相比,能更好的了解市場狀況。例如總部設在硅谷、奧斯汀、得克薩斯的計算機公司總是努力地探求客戶的消費需求和傾向, 這是其他公司無法比擬的。在簇群內, 與其他實體保持持續的關系, 還有助于公司更早地了解到演進中的技術、零部件和機械的可用性,服務和營銷概念等?，F場參觀的便利和頻繁的面對面聯系,使上述學習變得更為容易

78、。</p><p>　　簇群做的更多的是為創新提供可見度更高的機會。同時它還具有迅速反應的能力和靈活性。簇群內的公司經常能夠尋找到他們所需要的要素,以促進創新更快地實現。當地供應商和合作伙伴能夠并且確實緊密的參與創新過程,進一步確保與客戶需求保持一致。</p><p>　　簇群內的公司能夠以較低的成本進行實驗,推遲大額商業協議的履行,除非他們能確定既定的創新將如期執行。相比之下, 一個依賴

79、于遠地供貨商的公司在其與其他組織進行協作的每一項活動中———例如簽訂合同、確保交貨、獲得有關技術和服務支持等, 都將面臨極大的挑戰。對于垂直一體化的公司來說,創新將變得更為艱難。</p><p>　　如果創新貶低了內部資產的價值, 或者當有新產品研發出來而又必須維護當前的產品或程序時,他們將面臨交易的困難。加強創新的其他優勢是發生在簇群內部的一種絕對性壓力,有競爭性壓力、同等條件下的壓力、持續不斷的比照壓力。決策

80、者們相互競爭的目的就是為了突出自己。簇群之所以持續幾十年成為創新的中心正是由于以上這些原因所致。</p><p>　　簇群和新業務的形成 許多新公司能夠在既存的簇群內而不是在孤立的地區成長起來并</p><p>　　不奇怪。例如, 新的供應商能夠在一個簇群內擴大規模是因為一個客戶集中的基地可以減少</p><p>　　風險,使這更容易抓住市場機會。由于一個發展完善的

81、簇群包括一些相關產業,這些相關產業</p><p>　　通常能吸引相同或極其相似的要素投入,這樣,供應商享受著擴張的機會。</p><p>　　簇群有利于新商機形成可用很多原因來說明。簇群內各個成員相互合作,更容易使他們感知到構成經營業務的產品或服務方面的差異。除此之外, 與其他地方相比, 這里的進入障礙更低。在有簇群的地區經常很容易得到所需要的資本、技術、投入和員工,把這些組合起來就可以

82、組成一個新的企業。</p><p>　　那些已經和簇群很熟悉的當地金融機構和投資者在資本方面要求有一個較低的風險損失率。而且,簇群經常代表著一個顯著的地方市場已經形成。企業家能從已經建立的諸多關系中受益。所有這些因素都降低了可以察覺到的、使企業不能退出的進入風險。</p><p>　　簇群內新業務的形成是積極的反饋圈的一部分, 一個擴展的簇群增強了所有上述利益。它可以提高競爭性資源的共享性